qualitative research :: 阿华读研

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阿华读研 每个人每天都在成长，在这里阿华希望能记录下三年读研的点点滴滴，记录下学业上抑或是做人上的点滴进步和为这些进步不停地付出的努力 <<<质的研究 | 首页 | 看问题要抓重点>>> qualitative research 时间：2004-06-07 Review of Qualitative Research Researched by group two Abstract: Qualitative approach is an approach to the study of the social world seeks to describe and analyze the culture and behavior of humans and their groups from the point of view of those being studied. AS the development of the social science, more and more researchers found that qualitative research is more suitable to study psychology, sociology, anthropology etc. This topic is going to introduce something about qualitative research. Ⅰ、 Introduction of qualitative research Qualitative approach is an approach to the study of the social world seeks to describe and analyze the culture and behavior of humans and their groups from the point of view of those being studied. Early forms of research originated in the natural sciences such as biology, chemistry, physics, geology etc .and was concerned with investigating things which we could observe and measure in some way. Such observations and measurements can be made objectively and repeated by other researchers. This process is referred to as “quantitative” research. Much later, along came researchers working in the social sciences: psychology, sociology, anthropology etc. They were interested in studying human behavior and the social world inhabited by human beings. They found increasing difficulty in trying to explain human behavior in simply measurable terms. Measurements tell us how often or how many people behave in a certain way but they do not adequately answer the question “why?” Research which attempts to increase our understanding of why things are the way they are in our social world and why people act the ways they do is “qualitative” research. The qualitative research is said deriving from a natural science understanding of how knowledge about the social world should be generated, and it also viewed as being predicated upon a prior set of assumptions about the study of social reality. There were three main factors which brought qualitative researches from subterranean tradition into open include: First is the growing disillusionment with the products of the scientific research such as quantitative research .Second is the promotion of self-reflection .Third is the diffusion of ideas associated with phenomenology. The main intellectual undercurrent is: phenomenology, symbolic interactions, overseen, naturalism, and estrogenic Ⅱ、 Nature of qualitative research Qualitative research is concerned with developing explanations of social phenomena. That is to say, it aims to help us to understand the world in which we live and why things are the way they are. It is concerned with the social aspects of our world and seeks to answer questions about: 1 、 Why people behave the way they do 2 、 How opinions and attitudes are formed 3 、 How people are affected by the events that go on around them 4 、 How and why cultures have developed in the way they have 5 、 The differences between social groups Qualitative research is designed to reveal a target audience’s range of behavior and the perceptions that drive it with reference to specific topics or issues. It uses in-depth studies of small groups of people to guide and support the construction of hypotheses. The results of qualitative research are descriptive rather than predictive. It is difficult to find an unambiguous and definitive statement as to what qualitative in education actually is. Here is a simple one that can be understood easily: Qualitative research is an approach to the study of the social world and seeks to describe and analyze the culture and behavior of humans and their groups from the point of view of those being studied. Qualitative Research involves finding out what people think, and how they feel - or at any rate, what they say they think and how they say they feel. This kind of information is subjective. It involves feelings and impressions, rather than numbers. Qualitative Researchers study “things” (people and their thoughts) in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. The qualitative research is very effective, and it have many rich, insightful results in many fields, because qualitative research have several unique aspects 1 、 Synergy among respondents, as they build on each other’s comments and ideas. 2 、 The dynamic nature of the interview or group discussion process, which engages respondents more actively than is possible in more structured survey. 3 、 The opportunity to probe ("Help me understand why you feel that way") enabling the researcher to reach beyond initial responses and rationales. 4 、 The opportunity to observe, record and interpret non-verbal communication (i.e., body language, voice intonation) as part of a respondent’s feedback, which is valuable during interviews or discussions, and during analysis. 5 、 The opportunity to engage respondents in "play" such as projective techniques and exercises, overcoming the self-consciousness that can inhibit spontaneous reactions and comments. Ⅲ、 Types of qualitative research designs They are four major types of qualitative research design: 1 、 phenomenology 2 、 ethnography3 、 grounded theory 4 、 case study 1 、 Phenomenology Phenomenology literally means the study of phenomena. It is a way of describing something that exists as part of the world in which we live. Phenomena may be events, situations, experiences or concepts. We are surrounded by many phenomena, which we are aware of but not fully understand. Our lack of understanding of these phenomena may exist because the phenomenon has not been overtly described and explained or our understanding of the impact it makes may be unclear. Phenomenological research begins with the acknowledgement that there is a gap in our understanding and that clarification or illumination will be of benefit. Phenomenological research will not necessarily provide definitive explanations but it does raise awareness and increases insight. 2 、 Ethnography Ethnography has a background in anthropology. The term means “portrait of a people” and it is a methodology for descriptive studies of cultures and peoples. The cultural parameter is that the people under investigation have something in common. Examples of parameters include: geographical - a particular region or country religious tribal shared experience. Ethnographic studies entail extensive fieldwork by the researcher. Data collection techniques include both formal and informal interviewing, often interviewing individuals on several occasions, and participant observation. Because of this, ethnography is extremely time consuming as it involves the researcher spending long periods of time in the field. Analysis of data adopts an “emic” approach. This means that the researcher attempts to interpret data from the perspective of the population under study. The results are expressed as though they were being expressed by the subjects themselves, often using local language and terminology to describe phenomena. Ethnographic research can be problematic when researchers are not sufficiently familiar with the social mores of the people being studied or with their language. Interpretation from an “etic” perspective - an outsider perspective - may be a misinterpretation causing confusion. For this reason, the ethnographic researcher usually returns to the field to check his interpretations with informants thereby validating the data before presenting the findings. 3 、 Grounded theory This methodology originated with Glaser and Strauss and their work on the interactions between health care professionals and dying patients. The main feature is the development of new theory through the collection and analysis of data about a phenomenon. It goes beyond phenomenology because the explanations that emerge are genuinely new knowledge and are used to develop new theories about a phenomenon. The new theories can be applied enabling us to approach existing problems in a new way. Various data collection techniques are used to develop grounded theory, particularly interviews and observation although literature review and relevant documentary analysis make important contributions. A key feature of grounded theory is the simultaneous collection and analysis of data using a process known as constant comparative analysis. In this process, data are transcribed and examined for content immediately following data collection. Ideas which emerge from the analysis are included in data collection when the researcher next enters the field. For this reason, a researcher collecting data through semi structured interviews may gradually develop an interview schedule in the latter stages of a research project which looks very different to the original schedule used in the first interview. New theory begins its conception as the researcher recognizes new ideas and themes emerging from what people have said or from events which have been observed. Memos form in the researcher's consciousness as raw data is reviewed. Hypotheses about the relationship between various ideas or categories are tested out and constructed formed leading to new concepts or understandings. In this sense the theory is "grounded" in the data. 4 、 Case study Like surveys, case study research is one of those research approaches which can take a qualitative or quantitative stance. Here the qualitative approach to case study is described wherein the value of case study relates to the in depth analysis of a single or small number of units. Case study research is used to describe an entity that forms a single unit such as a person, an organization or an institution. Some research studies describe a series of cases. Case study research ranges in complexity. The most simple is an illustrative description of a single event or occurrence. More complex is the analysis of a social situation over a period of time. The most complex is the extended case study which traces events involving the same actors over a period of time enabling the analysis to reflect changes and adjustments. The case study claims to offer a richness and depth of information not usually offered by other methods. By attempting to capture as many variables as possible, case studies can identify how a complex set of circumstances come together to produce a particular manifestation. It is a highly versatile research method and employs any and all methods of data collection from testing to interviewing. One of the criticisms aimed at case study research is that the case under study is not necessarily representative of similar cases and therefore the results of the research are not general sable. This is a misunderstanding of the purpose of case study research which is to describe that particular case in detail. It is particularistic and contextual. Ⅳ、 Features of qualitative research Qualitative research is concerned with finding the answers to questions which begin with: why? how? in what way? Further features of qualitative research are listed below. 1 、 Qualitative research is concerned with the opinions, experiences and feelings of indivi duals producing subjective data. 2 、 Qualitative research describes social phenomena as they occur naturally. No attempt is made to manipulate the situation under study as is the case with experimental quantitative research. 3 、 Understanding of a situation is gained through a h olistic perspective. Quantitative research depends on the ability to identify a set of variables. 4 、 Data are used to develop concepts and theories that help us to understand the social world. This is an inductive approach to the development of theory. 5 、 Qualitative data are collected through direct encounters with individuals, through one to one interviews or group interviews or by observation. Data collection is time consuming. 6 、 The intensive and time consuming nature of data collection necessitates the use of small samples. 7 、 Different sampling techniques are used. Qualitative sampling techniques are concerned with seeking information from specific groups and subgroups in the population. 8 、 Criteria used to assess reliability and validity differ from those used in quantitative research. Each of the various features of qualitative research may be viewed as strength or as a weakness. This depends on the original purpose of the research. For example, one common criticism levied at qualitative research is that the results of a study may not be general sable to a larger population because the sample group was small and the subjects were not chosen randomly. But the original research question may have sought insight into a specific subgroup of the population, not the general population because the subgroup is “special” or different from the general population and that special ness is the focus of the research. The small sample may have been necessary because very few subjects were available such as is the case with some ethnic groups or patient groups suffering from a rare condition. In such studies, generalisibility of the findings to a wider, more diverse population is not an aim. Ⅴ、 Methods of qualitative research Qualitative research methods originated in the social and behavioral sciences: sociology, anthropology and psychology. Today, qualitative methods in the field of qualitative research include many methods such as Participant observation, in-depth interviews with individuals, group discussions and so on. 1 、 Participant observation Participant observation (in-context observations)is one of the best-known methods of data collection in qualitative research, and many researchers have used it in their researches. 2 、 Unstructured interviewing Unstructured interviewing (from two to ten participants is typical) is also a favored technique in qualitative research, some make use of an interview schedule ,others operate with a loose collection of themes which they want to cover .The subject is given a much freer rein than in the survey interview. There are inevitably rambling on the interviewee and move away form the designated areas in the researcher’s mind. Sometimes the rambling is important and need some investigation but sometimes it would be regarded as a tiresome distraction from the main focus. The unstructured interview is often used as an adjunct to participant observation though it is frequently employed on its own as well. Participant observers are rarely simply participant observers, they also do many others things such as conduct unstructured interviews and so on. 3 、 Life history The life history method is often depicted as a major method of qualitative research too which entails the reconstruction of the lives of one or more individuals and diaries and autobiography is the mail data sources. 4 、 Group discussion The group discussion is a method which is finding increasing favor among some qualitative researchers; it is a form of unstructured interview but with more than one subject. Sessions may be conducted in person, by telephone, via videoconferencing and via the Internet. Ⅵ、 Process of qualitative research 1 、 Definite the object and question of the research. Much of qualitative research is dominated by research traditions from education, sociology, and anthropology. The researchers from these fields favor such methods as ethnography, participant observation, and naturalistic inquiry. In addition to these popular methods, qualitative research can also include methods from fields like communication (e.g., discourse analysis or conversation analysis), literature (e.g., narratology or figurative language analysis), or Biblical studies (e.g., exegesis or hermeneutics). 2 、 Definite the participant of the research. Much of qualitative research is practiced from a scientific viewpoint. It is legitimized by its juxtaposition with quantitative approaches (i.e., qualitative research as pre-quantitative, qualitative research as post-quantitative, or qualitative and quantitative research in triangulation configurations) and it is undertaken with similar goals in mind as quantitative approaches (e.g., to predict, to confirm, etc.). There are many varieties of qualitative research which do not embrace a scientific way of knowing and doing. There is artistic or literary qualitative research which is based upon an artist's way of practice and knowledge production. Another type is clinical qualitative research which constructs its investigations by examining clinicians' methods and applying those ways of knowing in research inquiries (e.g., the use of circular questioning in data collection and analysis). 3 、 Come into being the research hypothesis. In our culture, knowledge produced from a practice of research, qualitative or quantitative, is usually placed above awareness derived from a practice of practitioners as in the case of educators reflecting on their teaching or therapists re-searching their work in the clinic. Some researchers, qualitative and quantitative, realize that researchers can take their place along side other practitioners and engage in dialogue towards a creation of a community of knowing and not knowing. 4 、 The collecting and handling of the data. Qualitative approaches to data collection usually involve direct interaction with individuals on a one to one basis or in a group setting. Data collection methods are time consuming and consequently data is collected from smaller numbers of people than would usually be the case in quantitative approaches such as the questionnaire survey. The benefits of using these approaches include richness of data and deeper insight into the phenomena under .The main methods of collecting and handling qualitative data are: (1) Interview Interviews can be highly structured, semi structured or unstructured. Qualitative interviews are mainly semi structured or unstructured. Semi structured interviews (sometimes referred to as focused interviews) involve a series of open ended questions based on the topic areas the researcher wants to cover. The open ended nature of the question defines the topic under investigation but provides opportunities for both interviewer and interviewee to discuss some topics in more detail. Unstructured interviews are exactly what they sound like - interviews where the interviewer wants to find out about a specific topic but has no structure or preconceived plan or expectation as to how they will deal with the topic. Good quality qualitative interviews are the result of rigorous preparation. The development of the interview schedule, conducting the interview and analyzing the interview data all require careful consideration and preparation (2) Focus groups Sometimes it is preferable to collect information from groups of people rather than from a series of individuals. Focus groups can be useful to obtain certain types of information or when circumstances would make it difficult to collect information using other methods to data collection. They have been widely used in the private sector over the past few decades, particularly market research. They are being increasing used in the public sector (3)Participant observation Participant observation is one of the best-known methods of data collection in qualitative research, and many researchers have used it in their researches. Techniques for collecting data through observation include written descriptions, video recording, photographs and artifacts, documentation. 5 、 The analyzing of the data. Analysis of data in a research project involves summarizing the mass of data collected and presenting the results in a way that communicates the most important features. In quantitative research analysis involves things like the frequencies of variables, differences between variables, statistical tests designed to estimate the significance of the results and the probability that they did not occur by chance. All this is done basically by counting how often something appears in the data and comparing one measurement with others. At the end of the analysis, not only do we have a mass of results but we also have what we might call "the big picture", the major findings. In qualitative research we are also interested in discovering the big picture but use different techniques to find it. As in quantitative research, there may be some data which are measurable but for the most part we are interesting in using the data to describe a phenomenon, to articulate what it means and to understand it. The basic process of analyzing quantitative and qualitative data is the same. We start by labeling or coding every item of information so that we can recognize differences and similarities between all the different items. The procedure is the same whether the qualitative data has been collected through interviews, focus groups, observation or documentary analysis since it is concerned with analyzing text. 6 、 Get the conclusion of the research. Qualitative data has several features to take into consideration when planning the presentation of findings. The data are subjective, interpretative, descriptive, holistic and copious and it can be difficult to know where or how to start. A good starting point is to look at the themes and categories which have emerged and to use these to structure the results section of the research report. This structure can be set out at the beginning, either as a list or in diagrammatic form. The themes are then presented in sections with the categories as sub sections. In this way, the categories of data are used to construct a case that the themes are the main findings of the study. Further “evidence” to support the findings is provided by using direct quotations from respondents. Key quotations are selected to illustrate the meaning of the data. Ⅶ、 Development trends of qualitative research 1 、 Attach importance to the situation research. For some, aesthetics and pragmatics in qualitative research mean that researchers attempt to approximate a known, well-practiced, and established form or tradition in their research project at hand (e.g., "In this study, the researcher employed a Glaser and Strauss grounded theory approach.") or improvise on a well-known approach (e.g., "The Spradley ethnographic interview was modified in the following ways..."). Other qualitative researchers feel that particularities of each research project are so unique that they require a distinctive method for every study. They may identify research tradition(s) which inspired their method for a specific project, but they will also allow each study to have its own project-specific method which emerge from the special characteristics of the project. 2 、 Emphasis the combination of the quantitative and the qualitative research and it become more and more evident. Qualitative researchers have a habit of focusing on what is familiar and central to the study at hand. That which was known through literature searches and previous observations before the study was conducted becomes central in the unfolding process of the research. Also, that which is observed as happening or occurring the most during the study garners the lion's share of the spotlight. What may be missed through this style of inquiry is an opportunity for investigators to know what might not have been known to them prior to the study. Space and time have to be allowed in research to create room for such discoveries. Also, the margins of a project often provide some of the most interesting and informative patterns for investigators if they include a curiosity for the exception in their work and a hesitancy to explain quickly that which might turn out to be unexplainable. 3 、 Think much of the forecast, through the nature we get to know the future development of the object. For the most part, qualitative researchers' reports of their work approximate the shapes of a traditional research report: problem, literature review, hypothesis(es) and/or research questions, method, analysis(es), discussion, and conclusion(s). These sections may follow a linear progression or may be presented in a circular or recursive pattern, the choice being dependent on the process followed in the study and/or prescriptions suggested by the publishing source. Qualitative researchers may also choose literary or artistic modes of re-presentation for their work. These choices include novel and poetic forms, as well as expressions of pastiche and collage. Other researchers explore more audio-visual re-productions in the forms of videos, films, and pictorial exhibits. Still other qualitative investigators' reports assume forms usually associated with clinical expression--the case study, for example. For all of these researchers great care is taken in choosing a medium which contributes to the message of the research. Reference: Margaret D. LeCompte and Judith Presissle, Quqlitative Research:What It is ,What It Isn’t, And How It’s Done , In Bruce Thompson(Ed. )(1994)Advances in social Science Methodolgy, Volume 3, pages 141-163,JAI Press Beverley Hancock, Division of General Practice University of Nottingham, Trent Focus Group An Introduction to Qualitative Research, Produced by: Trent Focus Group,1998(updated 2002) Ronald J. Chenail, Qualitative Research: Central Tendencies and Ranges, The Qualitative Report, Volume 1, Number 4, Fall, 1992 http://www.xlxcn.net/xoops/modules/news/article.php?storyid=37 littleyou 发表于 2004-06-07 10:02 引用Trackback(0) | 编辑 评论 发表评论 最后更新 快放假了 《系统科学》部分讲义 同事来了 看问题要抓重点 要学会调节自己的情绪 当代教育技术学研究领域的基本架构――教育技术学在做什么 从教学设计到绩效技术 课堂教学技术 深圳“330”项目之三 深圳“330”项目之二 唯存教育 农民小宝 西游记 东行记 庄秀丽的blog 何克抗blog 教育技术无限思考 慕蓉松龄 教育技术研究 白衣飘飘 赵国庆 吴娟 古船社 绍杰的blog