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ÄÏÆÂ : ÄãÊÇÒ¶×Ó£¿. ´æµµ Links Ó¢ÓïÑ§Ï° »¥Áª½ÌÓıÌåÏµ ÔÚÏß½ÌÓı×ÊÑ¶ issacmao.com weblog in education ½ÌÓıÑĞ¾¿·½·¨ IsaAcmox ·ÖÒ³: [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] teaching "New AI" - 2003-06-06 22:13 Understanding intelligence Introduction The target audience of Understanding Intelligence is students of artificial intelligence who are not only interested in clever algorithms but in understanding natural forms of intelligence and principles of intelligent behavior in general. The book discusses the synthetic methodology that can be characterized as "understanding by building". It consists of three components: (1) modeling certain aspects of biological systems, (2) abstracting general principles of intelligent behavior, and (3) applying these principles to the design of intelligent systems. Modeling Aspects of Biological Systems Many examples of biological systems that researchers have tried to model can be found in the literature: foraging behavior; path integration, visual navigation in ants and honey bees; schooling and predator avoidance behavior in fish; implicit learning in rats exploring a maze; the emergence of hierarchies in groups of chimpanzees involved in local dominance interactions; human infants learning to make distinctions in the real world; adults recognizing objects under various viewing angles, distances, and lighting conditions; experts performing medical diagnosis; mathematicians proving a theorem; and, of course, grand masters playing chess. Whereas biologists or psychologists might be satisfied with such a model, artificial intelligence researchers or cognitive scientists will want to know about the general principles. Abstracting General Principles of Intelligent Behavior In the classical view of artificial intelligence, the general principles dealt mostly with symbol processing and computational architecture. In more recent approaches, where embodiment plays an important role, the principles that have been suggested are more strongly related to the interaction with the real world as it is mediated by the body of the agent. Here are, very briefly, a few examples: One principle asserts that we must not look at the agent in isolation but must define its ecological niche, its tasks, and at the types of interactions of the agent with its environment. Another principle, inexpensive design, states that these interactions can be exploited in the design of an agent. A beautiful illustration of this principle is Ian Horsewill's robot Polly. In the early 1990s Polly gave tours of the MIT AI Lab. It's camera was slightly tilted downwards so that more distant objects were higher up on the y-axis in the image - an inexpensive way of visually detecting the nearest obstacles. The principle of sensory-motor coordination was inspired by John Dewey, who, as early as 1896, had pointed out the importance of sensory-motor coordination for perception. This principle implies that through sensory-motor coordination, through coordinated interaction with the environment, an agent can structure its own sensory input. In this way, correlated sensory stimulation can be generated in different sensory channels --an important prerequisite for perceptual learning and concept development. Another principle has its origins in the work of Rodney Brooks, who introduced into AI research the idea of embodiment and the subsumption architecture. According to the principle of parallel, loosely coupled processes, intelligence emerges from a large number of parallel processes that are only loosely coupled and are mostly coordinated through the interaction with the environment. An example is an insect walking: coordination of the individual legs is achieved not only through neural connections but also the environment. Because of the body's stiffness and its weight, if one leg is lifted, the force on all the legs changes instantaneously, a fact that is exploited by the leg coordination system in the insect. Another principle that can be abstracted from various models is the complexity of the relationships among the sensory, motor and neural control systems. In intelligent systems --especially naturally intelligent systems and artificial systems --given a particular task, there is always an "ecological balance" in the complexity of the sensory system, the motor system, and the neural substrate. Additional principles deal with redundancy, value, learning, and self-organization (which are not further discussed here). Note that in the classical perspective most of these principles do not apply because it is limited to the computational world. Applying the Principles to the Design of Intelligent Systems Once the principles have been established, they can be applied to designing intelligent systems and practical applications. The book has many case studies that illustrate the various principles. Content of a Course on New AI We have been teaching a cognitive science oriented class, called"An Introduction to New AI" (also called "Embodied AI" for a strongly cross-disciplinary audience, including computer scientists, engineers, psychologists, biologists, neuroscientists, mathematicians, and physicists. Understanding Intelligence, the textbook we use, outlines the issues involved in the study of intelligence and the classical paradigm and its major problems. It then sketches a framework for embodied artificial intelligence and fundamental topics to consider when designing and analyzing intelligent systems. An example is the frame-of-reference problem which was discussed by a number of authors, most notably Herbert Simon using his famous "ant on the beach." From an observer's perspective, the ant's path is highly complex, but the mechanisms underlying its behavior might in fact be very simple. For example, behavior rules such as "if obstacle on left turn right; if obstacle on right, turn left", operate in the neural substrate of the ant. The behavior of the ant cannot be reduced to its internal neural mechanism because behavior is always an interaction with the real world. Increasing the size of the ant by a factor of 1000, but using the identical neural program, the ant would, in exactly the same environment, describe a path that would be much straighter. Other general principles such as the varous time scales involved in explaining behavior and designing intelligent systems, are also discussed. The book gives an overview of the various approaches to designing and explaining intelligent systems, including adaptive neural networks (i.e. networks that do not need to be trained with defined training and test sets, and that can learn as they are performing in the real world), Braitenberg vehicles, behavior-based robotics and the subsumption architecture, and artificial evolution. In addition, it briefly summarizes the behavioral economics, dynamical systems, and schema-based approaches to designing intelligent systems. The next five chapters summarize a set of abstract principles, called "design principles of autonomous agents", some of which were illustrated earlier. One chapter in particular should appeal to psychologists and cognitive scientists, who intend to apply principles from embodied AI (or embodied cognitive science) to a high-level cognitive phenomenon, namely memory. Although memory is considered a phenomenon of "high-level cognition", there are many direct links to embodiment. Another part of the book discusses general design issues and evaluation of models. The last part is dedicated to a re-assessment of artificial intelligence from an embodied perspective. Although, the field of "New Artificial Intelligence" has been around only for about 15 years, many exciting research issues and teaching ideas have emerged from it. Web Resources If you are interested in teaching a class, the book has a companion web site http://www.ifi.unizh.ch/~pfeifer/mitbook/ that is being continually developed. The website gives a number of programming examples. A simulator on the site provides some insight on various problems. We need an "agent simulator", one that can simulate the actual interactions of an agent with its environment. The website also contains comments on robot implementations. Most experiments discussed in the book can be performed with a generic robot architecture: a robot with two motors and a number of IR sensors, and perhaps a few light sensors. For those interested in the theoretical background and research issues, you can use chapters 11 through 17 as a basis for discussions: they discuss the design principles, present evidence from various disciplines, demonstrate detailed case studies, and outline research topics. Students from different disciplines who have attended this class have been excited; we plan to teach it again in the upcoming winter term. smilelife ·¢±íÓÚ 22:13 | Read more.... | ÆÀÂÛ(0) Computer science core concepts for a K-12 curriculum - 2003-06-06 21:40 http://www.iste.org/profdev/symposia/cs/2000/media/cs_symposium_core.pdf A more detailed pdf file http://info.acm.org/education/k12/k12Draft1101.pdf smilelife ·¢±íÓÚ 21:40 | Read more.... | ÆÀÂÛ(0) weblog in education - 2003-06-05 20:44 ÔÄ¶Á¸¨µ¼×¨¼ÒPam Pritchard Ëµ£º"(Weblog)ÏñÒ»¸öºÚ°å¡¢Ò»¸öÓÀÔ¶Ìî²»ÂúµÄÎÄ¼ş¹ñ£¬Ò²ÊÇÊÖÖ¸±ßµÄÍ¨Ñ¶ÏµÍ³....ÕâÊÇ¶Ô×ÔÎÒÑ§Ï°µÄÒ»¸öÓĞÒâÒåµÄÊ±¿Ì¡£" smilelife ·¢±íÓÚ 20:44 | Read more.... | ÆÀÂÛ(0) °ÑblogÓ¦ÓÃµ½½ÌÓıÖĞ£¨Ã«Ïò»Ô£© - 2003-06-05 11:39 °ÑÍøÖ¾(Blog)Ó¦ÓÃµ½½ÌÓıÖĞ Ã«Ïò»Ô Ä¿Ç°È«ÇòÒÑ¾ÓĞ³¬¹ı50ÍòµÄBlog ÓÃ»§£¬ËûÃÇ¶¼×Ô³ÆÎªBlogger, ¶øÇÒËÙ¶È»¹ÔÚ·ÉËÙÔö¼Ó¡£¶ÔÓÚÔÚ¸÷¸öÁìÓòÓĞ×¨ÒµĞÔ¼¼ÄÜºÍ²»¶ÏÑ§Ï°µÄÈËÀ´Ëµ£¬ÕâÖÖÓ¦ÓÃÊÇÒ»¸ö·Ç³£ºÃµÄ¹¤¾ß¡£Blogger.com ¾ÍÊÇÌá¹©Ãâ·ÑBlog 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Can grow tolerance across blogs (exposures to new ideas)£¬C-logs are like a social event ¹éÎªÕâÀàµÄ£¬¾ÍÊÇÈÕ¼ÇÀàµÄBlogÁË¡£C-LogsµÄÄ¿µÄ£¬²¢²»ÔÚÓÚ°Ñ×Ô¼ºµÄÈÕ¼Ç¹«¿ª»¯£¬¶øÊÇÏ£ÍûÕâÖÖÔÚÍøÂçÉÏ·¢²¼µÄÈÕ¼Ç£¬À´ĞÎ³É¡¢Î¬ÏµÒ»¸öÊôÓÚ×Ô¼ºµÄ¡°È¦×Ó¡±£¬ÊÇÒÔÉçÈºµÄ½»ÍùÎªÄ¿µÄ¡£¾ÍºÃÏñÔÚÏÖÊµÊÀ½çÖĞ£¬ÅóÓÑÃÇÖ®¼ä³£³£ÁÄÌì¡¢¾Û»á£¬»¥Ïà´«²¥Ğ©ÏûÏ¢£¬Í¨¹ıÕâÖÖ½»Íù£¬¼ÓÇ¿¡¢¼ÓÉîÅóÓÑ¼äµÄÓÑÇé£¬¹®¹ÌÅóÓÑ¼äµÄ¹ØÏµ¡£ ³ıÁËÉÏÃæµÄÈıÀà£¬Ó¦¸Ã»¹ÓĞµÚËÄÖÖ£¬»ìºÏÀàµÄ£¬¾ÍÊÇÔÚÄÚÈİ·½Ãæ£¬ÉÏÃæµÄÈıÀàÄÚÈİ¶¼ÓĞ¡£ smilelife ·¢±íÓÚ 22:09 | Read more.... | ÆÀÂÛ(0) angel light - 2003-06-04 18:31 smilelife ·¢±íÓÚ 18:31 | Read more.... | ÆÀÂÛ(0) instructional desigen for flow in online e-learning - 2003-06-04 15:13 This tutorial describes how the instructional design of an online course can facilitate an optimal learning experience for the students.The optimal learning experience is the state term "flow",which is defined by creativity researcher Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. It is "the state in which people are so involved that nothing else seems to matter;the experience is so enjoyable that people will do it even at great cost,for the sheer sake of doing it".It is also "joy,creativity"and "the process of total involvement in life"as descrilbed by csikszentmihalyi. csikszentmihalyi has extracted seven elements that make an activity conductive to flow from the literature on flow,and has applied them to the instructional design of online course. In fact, these seven characteristics of a flow experience have been part of the common experiences of creative and succesful people in Stephen Covey's motivational book Seven habits of highly effective people .Due to this similarity to Covey's seven habits,The author refer to the seven elements that make instructional design conductive to flow as the "seven habits of highly effective instructional design." This tutorial will address how designers of online courses can help students to : Focus their attention on a course Solve problems Develop skills and Enjoy intellctual stimulation The seven habits of higyly effective instructional design are: 1 Focus goals 2 Eliminate distractions 3 Match student skills and course level 4 Create a supportive enviroment 5 Create order through rules 6 Let students express themselves 7 Provide timely and consisten feedback Habit 1: Focus Goals Csikszentmihalyi has shown that activities with focused goals are conducive to flow. Create a Clear Syllabus In online teaching, as in traditional instruction, there is an infinite potential for obfuscation. The difference is that in online teaching, confusion occurs with poorly written syllabi, lectures, or assignments. When an online instructor gives confusing explanations, students will read for an hour and then think, "What am I supposed to do this week anyway?" Stating clear and focused goals in the syllabus is the best way to start an online course. Here are some questions whose answers should be obvious when skimming an online course syllabus: How does the course work? Is it synchronous or asynchronous? What are the assignments and readings for the course, and when should they be done? Will class participation be graded? If so, how? Are there exams? If so, when and how will they be administered? Is the grading scheme obvious? Let Students Check Themselves In addition to focusing goals for a course in a syllabus, instructional designers can create well-defined objectives for each assignment. For example, a computing instructor can provide sample input and output for a computer program students have been assigned to write. Alternatively, instructors can provide a checklist for what is required in each assignment. While this might be considered "pampering" in the traditional classroom, online students work very independently and often have a stronger need to know that they are on the right track. Providing a method for the students to check themselves is likely to save the instructor time. Many students in online courses email instructors to request confirmation that assignments are acceptable before they are officially submitted. Format and Write for Usability Good formatting and clear and concise writing are a critical skills for an online teacher. E-learning students are usually inundated with written material since they must read many pages of writing just to understand the course format, requirements, and assignments. A simple formatting scheme that is used consistently can greatly increase the usability of a course Web site. Usability refers to the ease with which information on a Web site can be found. For example, assignments could always have a box around them, the reading could always be in bold, and point allocation for each part of an assignment can be clearly specified in that section. Usable course materials allow online students to concentrate on the challenges of the course work rather than on finding course information. Habit 2: Match Instruction Level and Student Skills In addition to having clear goals, a second characteristic of a flow experience is "a sense that one's skills are adequate to cope with the challenges at hand," according to Csikszentmihalyi. When a person's skills are less advanced than those required to meet a challenge, anxiety results. When a person's skills are more advanced than what is needed to meet a challenge, boredom results. Flow usually occurs when a person's skill level matches the level of a challenge. To avoid having anxious students, virtual instructors can clearly state the prerequisite knowledge for their courses. To prevent boring knowledgeable students, instructors can specify the skills and material that will be learned in the course so that students who have already mastered them can choose a higher-level course. Since instruction and student skills should be at the same level for a course to be conducive to flow, learning material must get more complex as a course progresses to prevent students from becoming bored. Instructors will have a guide to increasing the complexity of their course material if they carefully choose a textbook whose chapters become more complex in reasonable increments. Frequent and graded assignments are recommended whenever possible since they require students to master course material before moving on to new material at a higher level. Online instructors must also make sure students have the prerequisite computer skills for the course. A required orientation to the course software is often helpful. Habit 3: Eliminate Distractions An environment that is free of distractions facilitates flow. Csikszentmihaly has also described flow as a time when "Concentration is so intense that there is no time left over to think about anything irrelevant, or to worry about problems." It is well known that athletes do best when they concentrate on their sport and not on their audience or the possible ramifications of their performance. One might speculate that the same is true of students. Students can take advantage of the flexibility inherent in asynchronous online learning to eliminate distractions. Within time limits, students in virtual classrooms are better able to work when alert, fed, and in an inspiring environment. However, e-learners may be distracted by the Web sites of interest to them. To keep students' attention on their course, instructors can: o Limit use of outside Web sites to only a few emphasizing quality over quantity. o Emphasize the purpose of each visit to an outside Web site. o Give students the exact URLs and links to the outside sites and avoid "needle in the haystack" searches. Habit 4: Create a Supportive Environment Since friendly environments encourage students to focus on their work without being distracted by self-consciousness or fear of mockery, non-threatening learning environments are conducive to flow. Though Habit 4 follows Habit 3, I refer to "Creating a Supportive Learning Environment" as a separate habit to underscore its importance. Some ways that instructors can create a friendly atmosphere for learning are: Beginning the course by asking students to post brief biographies of themselves¡ªa standard "icebreaker" in e-learning. Stating the goals common to all students in the course. In written critiques of student work, emphasize positive aspects and state what was done well and how the work could be improved. Providing a qualitative acknowledgement of improvement (e.g. when a student with no previous programming experience writes a complex program correctly). Habit 5: Create Order through Rules Of all the seven habits, creating order through rules may be the most important in encouraging a flow experience. Flow experiences are nearly always associated with activities governed by rules. Having a set of rules in mind allows a person to independently create mental order from a new experience. Csikszentmihalyi explains that "A person who becomes familiar with the conventions of poetry or the rules of calculus can subsequently grow independent of external stimulation." Playing a sport, a common flow activity, is always subject to the rules of the game. Rules provide a crucial, supportive framework for optimal experiences. Creating Structured Courses By default, asynchronous online courses are unstructured and unordered. Unlike face-to-face courses, they do not meet at the same time in the same place on the same days of the week. Order must be consciously created in most online courses. However, there are many ways instructional designers can create similar periodicity in asynchronous online courses. Instructors can add order to Web-based learning by: Uploading all assignments to the same part of the course Web site. Using the same formatting for all assignments. This also helps students focus goals as discussed in habit one. Making all assignments due on the same day of the week at the same time (e.g. Every course assignment is due on a Monday at midnight EST). Using a simple grading scheme with periodicity (e.g. 100 points for each of three assignments and 200 points for the final exam). Order in Virtual Classrooms In addition to having order in course materials, orderly conduct in the virtual classroom facilitates flow. Rules for conduct in the virtual classroom can be given at the start of a course. The anonymity inherent in online education encourages some students to be unruly. It is not uncommon for online students to insult their peers or even their instructor even when they would be polite in a traditional classroom. Instructors at all levels may need to "train" some students in the etiquette of online discussions. As in a face-to-face setting, students learn best when an instructor can control the class. Habit 6: Let Students Express Themselves Work that is a form of self-expression or that is "personal and psychologically comfortable" is conducive to flow, writes Csikszentmihalyi. Students can be asked to express themselves within the framework of requirements for an assignment. For example, students could be asked to write a computer program to solve a problem but could be given the freedom to create their own problem-solving strategy. Habit 7: Provide Timely and Helpful Feedback When compared to other forms of distance education, the major advantage of online learning is the ease with which students can interact with the instructor and among themselves. Rapid feedback encourages flow since students can quickly learn from their errors. Csikszentmihalyi states "What makes this information valuable is the symbolic message it contains: that I have succeeded in my goal." While rapid feedback helps students, the online instructor is not a 24/7 slave and cannot always be available to provide rapid feedback. Instructors can encourage students to get feedback from other sources, such as other students in the class, compilation errors of a computer program, self-tests in a study guide, or through creation of other test situations. These additional sources of feedback will encourage flow experiences while promoting independence, a characteristic of professionals. Conclusion Csikszentmihalyi has summarized his research by stating, " When the job provides clear goals, unambiguous feedback, a sense of control, challenges that match the worker's skills, and no distractions, the feeling it provides are not that different from what one experiences in a sport or artistic performance." By incorporating the characteristics of a flow experience into a course, any instructional designer can set the stage for an optimal learning experience that leaves students feeling like intellectual virtuosos. smilelife ·¢±íÓÚ 15:13 | Read more.... | ÆÀÂÛ(0) Ç°Á½ÌìÕâ¸öÍøÕ¾ÔõÃ´ÁË£¿ - 2003-06-02 22:11 Ò»¿ªÊ¼½Ó´¥BLOG£¬ÈÃÎÒĞË·Ü²»ÒÑ£¬¾õµÃËüÊÇÒ»¸öºÃ¶«Î÷£¬ÓĞÍÆ¹ãµÄ¼ÛÖµ£¬ÒòÎª±¾ÈËÊÇ´ÓÊÂ½ÌÓıĞĞÒµµÄ£¬ËùÒÔÓĞÒâÏëĞ´ÆªÎÄÕÂ£¬Ö÷ÒªÊÇ¹ØÓÚBLOGÔÚ½ÌÓıÖĞÓ¦ÓÃµÄÒâÒåÖ®ÀàµÄ¡£¹¹Ë¼ÁË¼¸Ìì£¬Õı´ıÔÙÕå×Ã£¬È»ºó¶¯±ÊÊ±£¬Í»È»ÓÃĞÄ¾ÓªÁË¼¸ÌìµÄÍøÕ¾£¬Ò»ÏÂ×Ó½ø²»È¥£¬ÈÃÈË³Ï»Ì³Ï¿Ö£¬µ£ĞÄÊÇ·ñblogbus.comÍøÕ¾±»ºÚ¿Í¸øºÚÁË£¬»¹ÊÇÆäËûÊ²Ã´ÔÒò£¿ÈôÊÇÏµÍ³Î¬»¤£¬Ò²¸ÃÊÂÏÈ´ò¸öÕĞºô°É¡£ÓÉ´Ë£¬¾õµÃÒ»µãµãÒÅº¶¡£µ±È»£¬¶ÔÓÚ¼¼ÊõµÄ¶«Î÷£¬ÕâÀàÊÂÇéÍùÍù²»ÄÜ±ÜÃâ¡£ smilelife ·¢±íÓÚ 22:11 | Read more.... | ÆÀÂÛ(0) ¿ÉÒÔĞ´Ò»Æª¹ØÓÚagentµÄÎÄÕÂ - 2003-05-28 20:26 http://pattie.www.media.mit.edu/people/pattie/CACM-94/CACM-94.p1.html smilelife ·¢±íÓÚ 20:26 | Read more.... | ÆÀÂÛ(0)